1. Introduction: Women’s Rights in the EU and International Commitments
The European Union (EU) is founded on values of human dignity, equality, and respect for human rights, including the rights of women and girls. Women’s rights are not merely a policy preference—they are enshrined in binding international and regional legal instruments that member states are obliged to uphold. At the international level, the EU and its member states are parties to key conventions such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW, 1979), and the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995). These instruments establish a global framework for the protection and promotion of gender equality and women’s rights.
Regionally, the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union explicitly guarantees equality between women and men in all areas, including employment, work, and pay (Article 23). The Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) both commit the EU to eliminate inequalities and promote gender equality in all its activities (Articles 2 and 8 TEU, and Articles 157 and 19 TFEU).
The EU’s commitment to women’s rights is also reflected in its accession to the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention)—though full ratification at the EU level has been controversial and incomplete due to political resistance in some member states.
This web of international and EU-specific legal obligations places women’s rights at the core of the EU’s normative framework. Understanding how these commitments translate into concrete policies is key to evaluating the EU’s progress—and shortcomings—in advancing gender equality across its territory.
2. EU Policies on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality
The European Union has developed a comprehensive set of policies to promote women’s rights and advance gender equality both within its borders and globally. These policies are shaped by the principle of gender mainstreaming, which requires that gender perspectives be integrated into all EU legislation, policies, and programs. This approach recognizes that all policy areas—from digitalization to migration—affect women and men differently and must therefore be addressed accordingly.
The foundation of the EU’s gender equality policies lies in strategic frameworks and action plans. The current guiding document is the EU Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025, which sets out a vision for a Union where women and men, in all their diversity, are equal. The strategy outlines key priorities: ending gender-based violence, challenging gender stereotypes, closing gender gaps in the labour market, achieving equal participation across sectors, and promoting gender equality globally. It includes concrete targets and monitoring mechanisms to ensure accountability.
Another pillar is the European Pillar of Social Rights, proclaimed in 2017, which includes gender equality and work-life balance as core principles. Building on this, the Work-Life Balance Directive (adopted in 2019) strengthens parental leave rights and encourages equal sharing of caregiving responsibilities between women and men.
The EU also embeds gender equality in its external action, such as through the Gender Action Plan III (GAP III) for external relations, which guides EU foreign and development policy on women’s empowerment and gender-sensitive aid.
Importantly, the EU also supports civil society and grassroots women’s organizations across Europe through funding programs like Citizens, Equality, Rights and Values (CERV), recognizing their role in defending women’s rights and challenging structural inequalities.
Together, these policies form a multi-level framework that seeks to translate legal commitments into real progress in the everyday lives of women across the EU.
3. Major Policy Areas: Advancing Gender Equality in Practice
The EU addresses women’s rights through multiple interconnected policy areas aimed at tackling the structural causes of gender inequality. Among the most prominent are employment and economic equality, gender-based violence, political representation, health and sexual reproductive rights, and digital inclusion.
Employment and pay equality remain top priorities. Despite legal provisions such as the Equal Pay Directive, women in the EU still earn on average 12.7% less than men (Eurostat, 2023). To combat this, the EU adopted the Pay Transparency Directive in 2023, which obliges companies to disclose pay structures and report gender pay gaps. This policy seeks to empower women to challenge pay discrimination and push employers toward more transparent, fair wage practices.
Combatting gender-based violence is another critical area. The EU is advancing new legislation to criminalize violence against women, including online harassment and cyberstalking, while supporting victims through funding and coordination mechanisms. The EU Strategy on Combatting Trafficking in Human Beings (2021–2025) also addresses the exploitation of women and girls.
In political participation, women remain underrepresented in decision-making positions across member states. Through mechanisms like gender quotas and funding for women’s political training, the EU supports greater parity in parliaments and leadership roles. The Women on Boards Directive (2022) mandates gender balance on corporate boards of large companies.
In health and reproductive rights, the EU upholds access to quality care and sexual education, although implementation varies widely among member states due to national competencies. The EU also funds civil society actors advocating for women’s bodily autonomy.
Lastly, digital and STEM sectors have become focus areas, with initiatives encouraging girls and women to enter and thrive in science, tech, and innovation roles.
These policy areas illustrate the EU’s multidimensional approach to making gender equality a lived reality.
4. Intersection: Women and Migration – A Policy Timeline
The intersection of gender and migration is a critical dimension of EU policymaking, as migrant and refugee women often face multiple layers of discrimination based on both gender and migration status. Over the past two decades, the EU has gradually integrated a gender-sensitive lens into its migration and asylum policies, although implementation remains uneven across member states.
1999 – Tampere Programme: The EU’s first comprehensive migration framework made limited reference to gender, treating migrants largely as a homogenous group.
2004 – Qualification Directive: Marked a turning point by recognizing gender-based persecution—such as sexual violence or forced marriage—as valid grounds for asylum under EU law. This was a major achievement for women fleeing conflict and patriarchal violence.
2011 – Anti-Trafficking Directive: Adopted a gender-specific approach, identifying women and girls as especially vulnerable to human trafficking, particularly for sexual exploitation. It emphasized victim support, protection, and rehabilitation.
2015–2016 – Refugee Crisis: The mass arrival of asylum seekers prompted increased focus on the vulnerabilities of women and girls in transit and reception. The EU Action Plan on the Integration of Third-Country Nationals (2016) included gender-responsive measures for education, employment, and healthcare.
2020 – EU Pact on Migration and Asylum: Although criticized for prioritizing border security, the Pact does acknowledge the need for tailored support for women, including safeguards for victims of gender-based violence in asylum procedures.
2023 – Asylum and Migration Management Regulation (AMMR): Includes provisions for the identification of vulnerable applicants and gender-sensitive reception conditions, though advocacy groups argue for stronger enforcement mechanisms.
While EU law increasingly recognizes the gendered dimensions of migration, the challenge remains in ensuring that protection on paper becomes protection in practice—especially for undocumented women, survivors of violence, and those in detention.
5. Conclusion: Challenges Ahead and the Need for Continued Commitment
The European Union has made significant progress in recognizing and promoting women’s rights through laws, policies, and funding frameworks. From enshrining gender equality in its founding treaties to adopting targeted strategies like the EU Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025, the EU continues to push for structural change. However, the gap between legal commitments and lived realities for many women in the EU remains a serious concern.
Women across Europe—particularly migrant women, ethnic minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, and women with disabilities—still face persistent inequality, underrepresentation, and gender-based violence. The COVID-19 pandemic revealed and deepened existing gender disparities, especially in unpaid care work and economic insecurity. In parallel, the rise of anti-gender movements and political resistance to key frameworks, such as the Istanbul Convention, has challenged consensus on women’s rights in several EU member states.
Moreover, intersectionality—how gender overlaps with other forms of disadvantage—requires greater attention in EU policy design and implementation. Tailored approaches for women at the margins are essential for ensuring that equality is not just formal but substantive.
Looking ahead, the EU must maintain its leadership in promoting women’s rights by strengthening enforcement mechanisms, ensuring adequate funding for gender equality initiatives, and actively supporting civil society organizations working in this field. It must also continue to incorporate gender perspectives in external relations, particularly in conflict prevention, humanitarian aid, and enlargement processes.
In sum, while the EU has laid a solid foundation, protecting and advancing women’s rights in the face of social, political, and economic pressures requires vigilance, innovation, and unwavering political will. Women’s rights are human rights—and they must remain a central pillar of the European project.
